This month, we dive deeper into the exploration of aesthetic principles that shaped both Classical and Romantic thought. Beginning with the tension between the Apollonian and Dionysiac forces in Aeschylus’s Oresteia, we transition now to the Romantic era, where the concepts of the Sublime and Romantic Beauty come to the forefront. These ideas, central to the works of Victor Hugo and Théophile Gautier, reflect a rebellion against Classical order and embrace emotional intensity, chaos, and artistic freedom. Through the lens of Hugo’s “Préface to Cromwell” and Gautier’s advocacy for the principle of Art for Art’s Sake, we will examine how Romanticism redefined beauty, art, and human experience.

Exploring the Apollonian and Dionysiac: Transitioning from Classical to Romantic Art

Having completed our reading of the Oresteia last month, it’s time to reflect on a concept we haven’t yet fully explored but which will provide a meaningful bridge to our next book: the tension between Apollonian and Dionysiac forces. These concepts, defined by Nietzsche, refer to two opposing aspects of existence. The Apollonian represents order, logic, and structure, while the Dionysiac symbolizes chaos, emotion, and instinct. In Greek aesthetics, particularly in tragedies like The Oresteia, these two forces are often in conflict, yet together they reflect the complexity of human nature.

In the Oresteia, this tension plays out between the characters and the forces they represent. Apollo stands for order and justice, intervening in Orestes’ trial in The Eumenides to assert the need for societal structure and law over personal vengeance. On the opposite end are the Furies, who embody the primal and ancient demand for retribution. They refuse to be silenced, representing the deep emotional and instinctual side of justice rooted in blood and tradition. Athena’s intervention reconciles these forces, balancing rational justice with emotional necessity.

From the Apollonian and Dionysiac to Romanticism: The Sublime and Romantic Beauty

Transitioning from ancient Greek aesthetics to Romanticism, we find similar dualities in Romantic art and literature. The Romantic movement often embraced the Dionysiac—chaos, emotion, and wild passion—while also exploring the tension between these forces and the desire for order and structure. Romanticism rejected the rigid harmony and formality of Classical art in favor of the Sublime, a key concept outlined by Umberto Eco in his History of Beauty. The Sublime focuses on emotions provoked by vast, terrifying, and awe-inspiring experiences, such as towering mountains or violent storms. These are experiences that blend fear and beauty, evoking profound emotions that go beyond rational understanding.

Romantic artists and writers, including Victor Hugo, were captivated by the Sublime. Hugo’s work often portrays the tension between beauty and terror, order and chaos, reflecting the Dionysiac’s emotional intensity. This tension is evident in his “Préface to Cromwell”, a manifesto that argued for breaking free from the constraints of classical French theatre. In contrast to the Classical era’s emphasis on unity of time, place, and action, Hugo advocated for a theatre that could contain both the Sublime and the Grotesque. By embracing the extremes of human experience, Romantic art allowed for a more holistic exploration of the human condition, blurring the lines between beauty and ugliness, rationality and instinct.

In his preface, Hugo writes:

“Le drame doit tout comprendre. Le drame est la poésie complète. Le drame, c’est la vie et la réalité. Le drame c’est le grotesque et le sublime ensemble.” (The drama must encompass everything. Drama is the complete poetry. Drama is life and reality. Drama is the grotesque and the sublime together.)

This quote encapsulates Hugo’s belief that true art must capture all aspects of human experience. In his later novel Notre-Dame de Paris (commonly translated as The Hunchback of Notre Dame), this philosophy is brought to life through characters like Quasimodo and Esmeralda, who represent both the grotesque and the sublime, as well as the towering, Gothic cathedral, which evokes the Sublime in its grandeur and evokes both awe and fear.

Hugo’s Romantic Rebellion Against Classical French Theatre

To fully appreciate Hugo’s break from tradition, we must understand the context of Classical French theatre, which dominated drama for centuries before the Romantic movement. Classical theatre adhered to the Aristotelian unities of time, place, and action, which dictated that a play’s events must occur within a single day, in one location, and follow a singular plot. This emphasis on order and rationality mirrored the Apollonian force in Greek aesthetics.

Yet, as Romantic writers sought to capture a broader range of human emotions and experiences, these rules became stifling. Hugo’s preface to Cromwell—often seen as the manifesto of the Romantic movement in France—rejected these rigid constraints in favor of a more expansive and dynamic theatre that could depict both the most sublime and the most grotesque aspects of life. This was a rebellion against the Apollonian dominance of Classical art, an invitation to reintroduce the Dionysiac element of chaos, passion, and instinct.

In Notre-Dame de Paris, Hugo fully realizes this vision. The novel’s Gothic setting, with its dark, towering architecture, evokes the Sublime, while characters like the deformed Quasimodo and the beautiful Esmeralda embody the duality of the grotesque and the sublime. Through their stories, Hugo explores themes of beauty, suffering, and the contradictions inherent in human nature.

Théophile Gautier: Art for Art’s Sake

Romanticism’s embrace of emotion and instinct over rigid structures is also reflected in Théophile Gautier’s Préface to Mademoiselle de Maupin. In this manifesto, Gautier advocates for the principle of Art for Art’s Sake (l’art pour l’art), which asserts that art need not serve a moral or utilitarian purpose. Instead, art should exist purely for its own beauty and emotional power. This marks a significant departure from the Classical belief that art should educate or improve society.

In the preface, Gautier writes:

“Il n’y a de vraiment beau que ce qui ne peut servir à rien; tout ce qui est utile est laid, car c’est l’expression de quelque besoin.”
(There is nothing truly beautiful except that which can serve no purpose; everything that is useful is ugly, for it is the expression of some need.)

This declaration is central to the Romantic rejection of rationality and practicality in favor of the Dionysiac—beauty, passion, and untamed emotion. Gautier’s vision of art emphasizes the sensual and the beautiful without the constraints of purpose or morality. His work reflects the Romantic ethos that we will explore in Hugo’s Notre-Dame de Paris, where beauty and suffering are intertwined, and where the Sublime and the Grotesque coexist within the same space.

Final Thoughts and Discussion Questions

Here are some questions to reflect on:

• The Apollonian and Dionysiac in The Oresteia:
  How do the Apollonian (order, logic) and Dionysiac (chaos, emotion) forces contribute to the resolution of The Oresteia? In what ways might these concepts be relevant to the evolving nature of Romantic aesthetics?
• The Sublime in Romanticism:
  How does the concept of the Sublime, particularly the mixture of beauty and terror, manifest in Romantic art? Can you think of modern examples where the Sublime continues to evoke awe and fear simultaneously?
• Victor Hugo’s Preface to Cromwell:
  Hugo challenged the rigid rules of Classical theatre in favor of a more dynamic expression of human experience. How does this rejection of formality resonate with modern artistic movements that prioritize emotional and creative freedom over traditional structures?
• Gautier’s Preface to Mademoiselle de Maupin:
  Do you agree with Gautier’s assertion that art should exist purely for beauty and emotional power, without serving any societal or moral purpose? How might this philosophy impact the way we understand art today?

We look forward to discussing these themes with you in our upcoming meeting!